8. CONSULTANT AS ACTION-RESEARCH LEADER One of the most important roles of a good consultant is that of action-research leader in the data-collection activities of his or her work with a client. Kurt Lewin's concept of action research (Corsini, 1984) had as one of its core notions that when the client collaborates in collecting data, those data will have greater credibility, the client will be more willing to work on understanding them, and the client will be a more active participant in deriving the implications for action or change. His research indicated that a client can participate in data collection by helping to: * Determine the kinds of data needed in order to understand the problems being addressed; * Figure out ways to acquire those data; * Retrieve them; * Analyze and summarize them; and * Derive their most significant implications for a change effort (p. 117). One of the pitfalls for many consultants is developing too narrow a perspective with regard to the kinds and sources of data that might be relevant to the problem-solving effort. Consultants tend to think in terms of one or two conventional research techniques, and to focus on a particular sample of the client population as the exclusive source of valid data. Several different sources of data are needed in diagnosing a problem situation and helping to design plans for action: 1. Traditions, Values, and Norms. 2. Goals, Objectives, and Policies. 3. Problems and Concerns. 4. Expectations of Customers and Potential Customers. 5. Assumptions About the Future. 6. Scenarios of Desired Futures. Other kinds and sources of relevant data certainly exist. Those listed above are only samples that have proved important in collecting the kinds of diagnostic data that have helped consultants to understand client systems and to develop collaborative plans to improved efforts. Some consultants tend to focus their diagnostic efforts on "hard data" (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986). Their objective is to gather quantitative, reliable data from an adequate sample. They use methods that are standard and replicable in many situations and that are intended to answer the descriptive question "What is the situation now?" Other consultants tend to seek in-depth data about the complex of variables or dimensions of a situation by gathering information of a more personal nature. They collect anecdotal data from small samples, obtaining written descriptions of a situation so that they can analyze a client's readiness for change, what is hoped for, and what changes are desired. Many consultants are realizing the importance of trusting their intuition as a source of data, or professionally labeled, intuitive-synthesis focus. Most effective consultations probably do not depend solely on a "left-brain" style of problem solving. The specific uses of intuition depend on the nature of each client and his or her concerns. A consultant is rarely in situation in which the answers are clear. The process of seeking answers with the client by using intuition as well as other appropriate methods of inquiry encourages the client to trust his or her own intuition and thereby become more confident and self- sufficient. The client's capacity for creative self-renewal also is increased by being comfortable with the intuitive process (p. 89). One of the responsibilities of the consultant is to help the client to identify interim steps toward goal achievement and ways to assess or measure whether appropriate progress is being made. In addition, the consultant needs to emphasize to the client how important it is to celebrate positive progress. When the focus of the progress assessment is on the individual, the consultant may use such procedures as repeat measurements of performance level, supervisor's reports of improvement in relation to goals set during performance-review sessions, and the individual's own reports on feelings of progress and changes in attitudes toward work life. Progress assessment on group level may focus on collection of data concerning productivity or quality control. When the focus of progress assessment is on the organization, data can be collected about savings on overhead expenditures, quality production, production level, profit level, and success in trying out innovations in production and operating procedures. In attempting to collect information about progress at the macro- system level, the consultant may use anthropological procedures to obtain information on the image of the organization held by insiders as well as that held by consumers of the organization's products (p. 91). A useful conceptual model (Swartz & Lippitt, 1975) for evaluating consultative efforts includes the following evaluation areas. 1. Client/Consultant Relationship. The relationship that exist among the client, the client system, and the consultant often have a major impact on the final outcome of the consulting process. 2. Consulting/Training Events. This area covers significant consulting interventions, such as survey- feedback meetings, skill training, and conflict- resolution meetings. Assessing the impact of each of these events on the overall project can provide important information for use in designing future projects with the client and for improving similar events that will take place during the current project. 3. Progress Toward Specific Goals. This area relates to the degree to which the consulting effort has helped the client system to achieve progress toward its pre- stated goals. Evaluation of overall results helps to answer the client's question. "Was the money I invested in consultation returned, at least, by the results achieved?" Lippitt & Lippitt (1986) suggested four sources of data for evaluation of the consulting effort: 1. The Sponsor. The sponsor can significantly influence the consulting process and has a strong interests in its initiation, progress, and final outcome. 2. The Client. This person approves or denies approval of various events and directions within the sphere of the consulting project. 3. The Client System. This person or group is directly involved in or affected by, the consulting project. 4. The Consultant. This is the person for whose time and expertise the client has contracted. The consultant may be internal or external to the client system, and therefore, there may be a combination of internal and external helpers. Data may be collected in many ways. The following are five methods most frequently used by a consultant to assess his or her work: 1. Observation. 2. Questionnaires. 3. Interviews. 4. Documentation. 5. Instruments. It should be reiterated that every consulting situation is a data-collection process. In fact, Bidwell and Lippitt (1971) showed that action research was the most frequently mentioned purpose for data collection in the consulting relationship. However, there is some difficulty in attempting to look at action research as simply a research method or a technology of consultation because the total consultation process is essentially a program of action research.